Wolf-induced ‘landscape of fear’ doesn’t explain Yellowstone aspen regeneration, study says

From The Spokesman-Review:

BILLINGS – For more than a decade a passionate debate has reverberated within Yellowstone National Park’s scientific community regarding wolf reintroduction.

Did wolves improve aspen growth by helping to reduce elk populations, called a density-mediated indirect effect ?

Or did the mere presence of wolves make elk so nervous they didn’t eat as many aspen, or avoided areas where they may have encountered wolves, called a trait-mediated indirect effect ?

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